Sexual Assertiveness and Sexual Victimization Across Different Life Stages: Examining Gender-Related and Cultural Differences

Objectives: A growing body of research indicate that experiencing sexual victimization may be linked to lower levels of sexual assertiveness, yet significant gaps remain in understanding how this association varies across the life stages in which one is victimized, gender identities, and cultural contexts. Prior studies have primarily focused on cisgender women from Western countries, mainly examined adolescent/adult sexual assault (AASA), and emphasized sexual refusal while neglecting the larger concept of sexual assertiveness. Method: This study addresses these gaps by investigating the links between child sexual abuse (CSA), AASA, revictimization (CSAþAASA) and sexual assertiveness—encompassing initiation, refusal, and risk negotiation—using data from a large multinational online survey. We analyzed responses from over 64,000 participants, including men, women, and gender-diverse individuals from 42 countries, comparing the associations of sexual assertiveness and sexual victimization across groups based on gender and the intersection of country and gender. Results: Findings revealed that CSA is consistently associated with lower sexual assertiveness across all genders and countries, while AASA and CSAþAASA exhibit gender- and culturespecific patterns. Women’s sexual assertiveness was negatively associated with all forms of sexual victimization across the lifespan, while men’s sexual assertiveness was only consistently linked to CSA, with notable cross-country variations in the AASA-assertiveness relationship. Conclusions: These findings extend existing literature, fill important research gaps, and identify vulnerable populations, while emphasizing the need for gender- and culturally sensitive interventions to support survivors.