Hunting, non-timber forestry products, and jaguars (Panthera onca): How livelihoods influence views toward jaguars in protected areas of the Bolivian Amazon

• Hunting has a negative influence on views and behavior towards jaguars. • Non-timber forestry has a positive influence on views and behavior towards jaguars. • Variation in time spent and income derived within economic activities influence views and behavior. • Non-timber forestry should be encouraged, and fear and perceived risk should be reduced in hunters. Jaguar ( Panthera onca ) populations are increasingly threatened by human activities, yet research on conflict over jaguar within protected areas remains scarce, especially in regions without cattle ranching. In the Bolivian Amazon, where local people rely on various forest-based income sources, we examined how two income sources, hunting and non-timber forestry (Brazil nut harvesting, acai berry harvesting, and small-scale agroforestry), along with demographic factors such as age, level of education, and gender influence psychological drivers and norms, along with past and future behavioral intentions toward jaguars. Through analysis of structured in-person interviews (n = 171), we found that hunting activity, whether one practiced hunting or increased their time spent or income derived from hunting, had predominantly negative influence on attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral intentions toward jaguars. In contrast, non-timber forestry, whether one participates in the activity or increased their time spent or income derived from the activity, had a positive influence. Additionally, within-group variations in economic activities (e.g., time invested and income derived) were as important as whether the economic activity, specifically within hunting and non-timber forestry activities, was practiced at all. Contrary to findings from previous studies, demographic factors such as education had little effect on these psychological variables, with gender only influencing fear, and geographic area influencing norms. To support jaguar conservation, we recommend management strategies that reduce perceived risks and fears among hunters and promote non-timber forestry as a positive economic alternative